Chapter 3: Water Resources
This chapter examines India's most critical and contested resource—water—exploring its uneven distribution, growing scarcity, and the innovative conservation strategies emerging across the country. From ancient harvesting systems to modern multi-purpose projects, we trace how India manages its water, confronts escalating demand, and balances competing needs between agriculture, industry, and domestic use in an era of climate uncertainty.
1. The Water Paradox: Abundance Amid Scarcity
Water Resources encompass all forms of freshwater available for human use—surface water (rivers, lakes, ponds) and groundwater (aquifers, wells)—that exist within the hydrological cycle. India receives about 4,000 billion cubic meters (BCM) of annual precipitation, yet only 1,123 BCM is usable as surface and groundwater due to losses and geographical constraints.
- The Distribution Dilemma: While India has 18% of the world's population, it possesses only 4% of global freshwater resources. More critically, this water is distributed highly unevenly: Brahmaputra basin receives 60,000 cubic meters per capita annually, while Sabarmati basin receives a mere 360 cubic meters—a 166-fold difference.
- Temporal Variability: 75% of India's rainfall occurs during just 100 hours (the monsoon months), creating feast-or-famine conditions. Pre-monsoon months see severe water stress even in traditionally water-rich regions like Kerala, which faced unprecedented drought in 2016 despite high annual rainfall.
- The Groundwater Crisis: India extracts more groundwater than China and USA combined—about 250 cubic kilometers annually. With 21 major cities (including Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai) heading toward "Day Zero" scenarios, groundwater depletion represents India's most invisible yet urgent water challenge.
Critical Insight: India's water scarcity is primarily a management crisis rather than absolute scarcity. While Israel manages with 250 cubic meters per capita annually, many Indian regions with 1,500 cubic meters face severe shortages due to inefficient use, pollution, and distribution inequities.
2. Historical Water Wisdom: From Harappans to British
India's relationship with water management spans five millennia, showcasing remarkable adaptation to diverse hydrological conditions:
- Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1300 BCE): Sophisticated drainage systems, public baths (Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro), and well-planned water infrastructure. Harappans understood flood management and seasonal water storage.
- Ancient and Medieval Periods: Construction of sophisticated systems: Grand Anicut (2nd century CE, Kallanai dam on Kaveri), Bhoj wetland (11th century, Bhopal), and numerous stepwells (vavs in Gujarat, baolis in Delhi). Communities developed location-specific solutions: zings in Ladakh (glacial meltwater channels), kuhls in Himachal (hill irrigation channels).
- Mughal Era (1526-1857): Expansion of Persian-inspired systems: canals (Shah Nahr, 1568), elaborate gardens with waterworks (Shalimar, Nishat), and urban water infrastructure. The "Nahr-i-Behisht" (Stream of Paradise) supplied Old Delhi.
- British Colonial Period (1858-1947): Shift to large-scale engineering: Upper Ganga Canal (1854), Krishna Delta System (1855). Introduction of "permanent settlement" revenue systems that ignored traditional water management, leading to decay of local systems.
- Post-Independence Megaprojects (1947-1990s): Era of large dams: Bhakra-Nangal (1963), Hirakud (1957), Nagarjuna Sagar (1974). Emphasis on irrigation for food security but increasing social and environmental costs.
3. Evolution of Water Management Policies
- Green Revolution drove tubewell explosion (from 1 million to 19 million between 1960-2000)
- First environmental movements against dams: Silent Valley (1973), Tehri (1978)
- Drought-prone Area Programme (1973) and Desert Development Programme (1977) initiated
- Narmada Bachao Andolan forced global attention to displacement issues (1990s)
- 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992) gave Panchayats water management roles
- National Water Policy (1987 revised 2002) recognized water as economic good
- National Water Mission (2008) under Climate Change Action Plan
- Atal Bhujal Yojana (2019) for groundwater management
- Jal Jeevan Mission (2019) for household tap connections
- Interlinking of Rivers project revived with environmental concerns
4. Surface Water vs Groundwater: Twin Challenges
Characteristics and Management Issues
| Aspect | Surface Water (Rivers, Lakes) | Groundwater (Aquifers, Wells) | Integrated Solutions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Availability | 690 BCM usable, highly seasonal, visible | 433 BCM replenishable, perennial but invisible | Conjunctive use: surface in monsoon, groundwater in summer |
| Pollution Issues | Industrial discharge, religious offerings, agricultural runoff (70% polluted stretches) | Arsenic (West Bengal), Fluoride (Rajasthan), Nitrate (Punjab) contamination | Common Effluent Treatment Plants, organic farming zones around sources |
| Management Scale | River basin level (inter-state disputes common) | Local aquifer level (community management possible) | Watershed approach integrating both |
| Extraction Methods | Dams, canals, pumps - capital intensive | Tube wells, borewells - individually accessible | Rainwater harvesting recharges both systems |
| Equity Issues | Tail-enders in canals get less water | Rich can dig deeper wells, poor dependent on public wells | Water budgeting and rationing during scarcity |
Major Multi-Purpose Projects: Benefits and Controversies
| Project (River) | Primary Purposes | Achievements | Controversies/Issues | Region |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bhakra-Nangal (Satluj) | Irrigation, Hydroelectricity | Green Revolution enabler, 4 million ha irrigation | Himachal-Punjab disputes, siltation, salinity downstream | Himachal, Punjab |
| Hirakud (Mahanadi) | Flood control, Irrigation, Power | Largest dam (1957), protects coastal Odisha from floods | Displaced 22,000 families, reduced sediment to Chilika Lake | Odisha |
| Tungabhadra (Tungabhadra) | Irrigation, Power | Drought-proofing for Rayalaseema | Karnataka-Andhra disputes, heavy siltation | Karnataka, AP |
| Rihand (Rihand) | Hydroelectricity primarily | Powers industries in UP, Bihar | Submerged fertile land, limited irrigation benefits | Uttar Pradesh |
| Sardar Sarovar (Narmada) | Irrigation, Drinking water, Power | Provides water to drought-prone Gujarat, Rajasthan | Displaced 200,000+ people, environmental costs, corruption | Gujarat, MP, Maharashtra |
5. Contemporary Water Challenges and Solutions
A. The Triple Crisis: Scarcity, Pollution, Governance
- Physical Scarcity vs Economic Scarcity: While Rajasthan faces physical water shortage (300mm rainfall), Tamil Nadu with 1,000mm rainfall experiences economic scarcity due to mismanagement, pollution, and over-extraction.
- Agricultural Water Guzzling: Agriculture consumes 80% of India's water but contributes only 15% to GDP. Rice and sugarcane—crops unsuitable for many regions—consume 60% of irrigation water. Punjab grows rice despite having only 2% of India's water resources.
- Urban Water Stress: Cities are facing multiple challenges: Bengaluru (lost 79% of water bodies since 1970), Chennai (dependent on tanker mafia), Delhi (leakage losses of 40%). Peri-urban areas compete with cities for groundwater.
- Water Quality Emergency: 70% of surface water and 30% of groundwater is contaminated. Fluoride affects 10 states (66 million people), arsenic affects West Bengal and Bihar (15 million), nitrates from fertilizers pervasive in agricultural zones.
B. Revival of Traditional Systems and Modern Innovations
- Rajasthan's Water Renaissance: Tankas (underground tanks) in Phalodi, Johads (check dams) in Alwar district revived by Tarun Bharat Sangh. From 1985-2000, 8,600 johads built, reviving 7 rivers and increasing groundwater by 6 meters.
- Tamil Nadu's Mandatory Harvesting: 2003 legislation requiring rainwater harvesting in all buildings. Chennai saw groundwater rise by 50% in implemented areas. "Eri" (tank) system maintenance revived.
- Maharashtra's Watershed Movement: 4,000+ villages practicing ridge-to-valley treatment. Ralegan Siddhi (Anna Hazare) and Hiware Bazar became models of water self-sufficiency through contour trenches, percolation tanks, and ban on water-intensive crops.
- Technology Interventions: Solar-based drip irrigation in Gujarat, sensor-based irrigation in Karnataka, aquifer mapping through heliborne surveys, mobile apps for water quality testing (Jal Tara), and AI for leak detection in urban networks.
Inter-State River Water Disputes: India has 7 major ongoing disputes affecting 19 states. The Cauvery dispute (Karnataka-Tamil Nadu) dates to 1892, Krishna-Godavari involves 4 states, and the recent Mahanadi dispute (Odisha-Chhattisgarh) highlights how water conflicts are intensifying with development pressures. The Inter-State River Water Disputes Act (1956) established tribunals, but enforcement remains challenging.
6. Hydrological Memory Aids
Major Multi-Purpose Projects Mnemonic: B.H.T.R.S. - Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakud, Tungabhadra, Rihand, Sardar Sarovar. Remember: "Big Huge Trucks Rarely Stop" for the first letters.
Traditional Water Systems by Region: K.J.T.Z.E. - Kuhls (HP), Johads (Rajasthan), Tankas (Rajasthan), Zings (Ladakh), Eris (Tamil Nadu). Remember: "Kings Just Treasure Zany Elephants" for regional water wisdom.
Water Contaminants: A.F.N.I. - Arsenic (West Bengal), Fluoride (Rajasthan), Nitrate (Punjab), Iron (Assam). Remember: "Always Filter Naturally Iron-rich water" for common groundwater issues.
7. Hydrological Visual Aids
India's River Basins and Water Stress Map: [Image Description: A color-coded map of India showing 22 major river basins with water stress levels. Brahmaputra basin in dark blue (water surplus), Ganga basin in light blue (moderate), Sabarmati and Pennar basins in red (severe stress). Show arrows indicating inter-basin transfer proposals. Include pie charts showing sectoral water use: Agriculture 80%, Domestic 8%, Industry 12%. Highlight regions with groundwater depletion >20cm/year in striped pattern.]
Traditional Water Harvesting Systems Diagram: [Image Description: Comparative diagrams of 5 traditional systems: 1) Rajasthan's Johad (catchment → earthen dam → percolation), 2) Tamil Nadu's Eri (cascading tank system), 3) Ladakh's Zing (glacial melt channel with diversion), 4) Karnataka's Surangam (horizontal well in laterite), 5) Meghalaya's Bamboo drip irrigation. Show cross-sections, water flow arrows, and modern adaptations like plastic lining for johads.]
Multi-Purpose Project Components: [Image Description: Annotated diagram of a typical multi-purpose project like Bhakra Dam. Label components: Dam wall, Spillway, Powerhouse (with turbine detail), Main canal, Distributaries, Field channels. Show benefits flow: Flood control (downstream protection), Irrigation (command area), Hydropower (transmission lines), Drinking water (pipelines to cities), Recreation (reservoir tourism). Include environmental costs: Submerged forest, displaced villages, siltation zone.]
8. Water Warriors and Community Initiatives
Modern Water Conservation Pioneers:
- Rajendra Singh (b. 1959): "Waterman of India," revived 8,600 johads in Rajasthan through Tarun Bharat Sangh. Transformed Alwar district from drought-prone to water-secure, reviving 7 seasonal rivers. Received Stockholm Water Prize (2015).
- A. R. Shivakumar (b. 1960): "Rainwater Man of India," designed self-sufficient home in Bengaluru using only harvested rainwater. Instrumental in making rainwater harvesting mandatory in Karnataka. Consultant for Vidhana Soudha's harvesting system.
- Popatrao Pawar (b. 1963): Transformed Hiware Bazar (Maharashtra) from drought-prone to water-exporting village through watershed development. Banned water-intensive crops, implemented strict water budgeting.
- Medha Patkar (b. 1954): Leader of Narmada Bachao Andolan, brought global attention to displacement and environmental costs of large dams. Advocated for decentralized, community-controlled water management.
Successful Community Water Management Models:
- Pani Panchayats (Maharashtra): Grassroots water councils that allocate water based on family size, not landholding. Vilasrao Salunkhe's model in Pune district ensures equitable distribution during scarcity.
- Mukhya Mantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan (Rajasthan): 2016 campaign constructing 280,000 water conservation structures across 21,000 villages through community participation. Increased groundwater by 4.5 meters in participating villages.
- Kudimaramathu (Tamil Nadu): Traditional system of community-led tank maintenance revived under MGNREGA. Villagers collectively desilt, repair bunds, and manage water distribution.
9. Essential Water Management Terminology
Watershed Management: An integrated approach treating a river basin or catchment area as a single unit for conservation and development. Involves ridge-to-valley treatment: contour trenches on hilltops, gully plugs on slopes, check dams in valleys, and afforestation throughout. Increases water retention, reduces erosion, and recharges groundwater.
Virtual Water: The hidden water used in producing agricultural or industrial products. 1 kg rice requires 2,500 liters virtual water, 1 kg sugar requires 1,500 liters. India exports 25 billion cubic meters virtual water annually through rice and sugar exports—equivalent to Ganga's annual flow at Haridwar.
Water Footprint: Total volume of freshwater used to produce goods and services consumed by an individual, community, or nation. India's per capita water footprint is 1,089 cubic meters/year (global average 1,385). Includes green water (rainwater), blue water (surface/groundwater), and gray water (polluted water).
Aquifer Depletion: When groundwater extraction exceeds natural recharge rates over prolonged periods. In Punjab, water table dropping 0.5-1 meter annually; in Bengaluru, from 50 feet (1970) to 1,000 feet (2020). Creates "cones of depression" where wells run dry, and in coastal areas leads to saltwater intrusion.
Rainwater Harvesting: Collection and storage of rainwater for direct use or groundwater recharge. Includes rooftop collection (tanks), surface runoff harvesting (check dams), and recharge structures (recharge wells, percolation pits). Can provide 50-70% of urban water needs if systematically implemented.
Chapter-Specific Hydrological Checklist
Chapter-Specific Answer Strategy: For water-related questions, use the "SOURCE-USE-MANAGE" framework: Sources (surface/groundwater availability), Use patterns (sectoral distribution, efficiency), Management (traditional/modern systems, governance). For 5-mark questions on conservation, structure as: 1) Demand management (efficient agriculture), 2) Supply augmentation (harvesting), 3) Pollution control, 4) Governance reforms, 5) Community participation.
Critical Data for Credibility: Annual precipitation (4,000 BCM), Usable water (1,123 BCM), Sectoral use (Agri 80%, Domestic 8%, Industry 12%), Groundwater extraction (250 cubic km/year), Contaminated water (70% surface, 30% ground), Water-stressed population (600 million), Rainwater harvesting potential (300 BCM). These statistics transform generic answers into authoritative responses.
Note: Water resources represent the intersection of physical geography, technology, economics, and social equity. Exam success requires balancing technical understanding (hydrological cycle, irrigation methods) with socio-political awareness (water conflicts, community management). For comprehensive preparation, study specific case studies: Alwar's water transformation, Chennai's 2019 Day Zero crisis, Punjab's groundwater depletion, and the ongoing Cauvery dispute evolution. Always link local water issues to broader climate change and food security contexts.
