Smart Notes: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
๐ CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter explains how nationalism emerged in Europe during the 19th century, transforming the political landscape from multi-national dynastic empires into nation-states. The French Revolution (1789) planted the seeds of nationalism by transferring sovereignty from the monarchy to citizens. Napoleon's administrative reforms spread revolutionary ideas across Europe, though his conquests also sparked resistance. After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna (1815) attempted to restore the conservative order, but liberal-nationalist movements kept rising—in 1830, 1848, and through underground societies like Young Italy. The chapter traces how Germany and Italy unified through a combination of popular struggle and state-led wars, how Britain forged its nation-state through a long process of domination, and how nationalist tensions in the Balkans eventually triggered World War I.
๐จ FREDERIC SORRIEU'S UTOPIAN VISION (1848)
What the print shows: Sorrieu, a French artist, created four prints visualizing his dream of "democratic and social republics." The first print shows peoples of Europe and America—men, women, all ages, all classes—marching in a long train, offering homage to the Statue of Liberty.
Symbolism explained:
- Statue of Liberty: Holds torch of Enlightenment in one hand, Charter of Rights of Man in the other—French Revolution ideals
- Shattered remains: On the ground lie symbols of absolutist institutions—representing the destruction of autocratic rule
- Nations identified: Different peoples grouped by flags and national costume—USA and Switzerland lead (already nation-states), France follows with tricolour, then Germans carrying black-red-gold flag (liberal hope for unification)
- Christ and angels: Gaze from heavens, symbolizing fraternity among nations
Irony: When Sorrieu created this, Germany was not yet united—the flag expressed hopes of liberal nationalists in 1848 to unify German-speaking principalities under a democratic constitution.
๐ ERNST RENAN'S DEFINITION OF A NATION (1882)
In his famous lecture "What is a Nation?" at Sorbonne University, French philosopher Ernst Renan rejected the idea that nations are formed by common language, race, religion, or territory alone. His key arguments:
- Social capital: "A heroic past, great men, glory—that is the social capital upon which one bases a national idea."
- Two essential conditions: (1) Common glories in the past, (2) Common will in the present
- Daily plebiscite: A nation's existence is a "daily plebiscite"—a continuous referendum where people affirm their will to live together
- No annexation against will: "A nation never has any real interest in annexing or holding on to a country against its will."
- Guarantee of liberty: Nations are necessary because they guarantee freedom—"which would be lost if the world had only one law and only one master."
๐ซ๐ท THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NATIONALISM
Year: 1789 marked the first clear expression of nationalism.
Measures to create collective identity:
- New concepts: La patrie (fatherland) and le citoyen (citizen)—emphasized united community with equal rights under constitution
- New symbols: Tricolour flag replaced royal standard; Estates General renamed National Assembly
- New rituals: Hymns composed, oaths taken, martyrs commemorated—all in nation's name
- Centralized administration: Uniform laws for all citizens; internal customs duties abolished
- Uniform system: Standardized weights and measures adopted
- Common language: Regional dialects discouraged; French (as spoken in Paris) became common language
- Mission to liberate: Revolutionaries declared it France's destiny to liberate other European peoples from despotism
Spread of revolutionary ideas: Students and middle classes set up Jacobin clubs across Europe. French armies carried nationalism abroad in 1790s—into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and much of Italy.
⚔️ NAPOLEON (1797-1815)
Positive reforms (Napoleonic Code, 1804):
- Abolished all privileges based on birth
- Established equality before the law
- Secured right to property
- Simplified administrative divisions
- Abolished feudal system; freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues
- Removed guild restrictions in towns
- Improved transport and communication
- Introduced uniform laws, standardised weights and measures, common currency
Mixed reactions:
- Initially welcomed: In Holland, Switzerland, Brussels, Mainz, Milan, Warsaw—as "harbingers of liberty"
- Turned to hostility: Because new administration didn't bring political freedom—increased taxation, censorship, forced conscription for French armies outweighed benefits
๐บ️ EUROPE BEFORE NATION-STATES
Mid-18th century Europe had no nation-states as we know them today:
- Germany, Italy, Switzerland: Divided into kingdoms, duchies, cantons with autonomous rulers
- Eastern and Central Europe: Under autocratic monarchies ruling diverse peoples—different languages, ethnic groups, no shared collective identity
- Habsburg Empire example: Patchwork of regions—Alpine regions (Tyrol, Austria), Bohemia (German-speaking aristocracy), Lombardy and Venetia (Italian-speaking), Hungary (Magyar and other dialects), Galicia (Polish-speaking aristocracy), plus subject peasants: Bohemians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Roumans. Only common tie: allegiance to emperor.
๐ THE ARISTOCRACY AND NEW MIDDLE CLASS
| Class | Characteristics |
|---|---|
| Landed aristocracy | Dominant class numerically small; owned estates and town-houses; spoke French for diplomacy; connected by marriage ties |
| Peasantry (majority) | West: tenants and small owners; East/Central: vast estates cultivated by serfs |
| Middle classes | Industrialists, businessmen, professionals; grew with industrialisation; carriers of liberal nationalist ideas |
| Working class | Emerging with industrialisation; small in Central/Eastern Europe till late 19th century |
๐ LIBERAL NATIONALISM EXPLAINED
Meaning of liberalism: From Latin liber (free). For new middle classes:
| Sphere | Demands |
|---|---|
| Political | Government by consent; end of autocracy and clerical privileges; constitution; representative government through parliament; inviolability of private property |
| Social | Equality before the law—but NOT universal suffrage (only property-owning men had voting rights; women and non-propertied men excluded) |
| Economic | Freedom of markets; abolition of state-imposed restrictions on movement of goods and capital; unified economic territory |
Women's status under Napoleonic Code: Reduced to status of minor, subject to authority of fathers and husbands. Women and non-propertied men organized opposition movements throughout 19th and early 20th centuries demanding equal political rights.
๐ฆ ZOLLVEREIN (1834) - ECONOMIC NATIONALISM
Problem before: German confederation had 39 states, each with own currency, weights, measures. A merchant traveling from Hamburg to Nuremberg in 1833 passed through 11 customs barriers, paying ~5% duty at each. Different regions had different measurements—an elle of cloth varied from 53.5 cm to 65.6 cm depending on city.
Solution: Zollverein formed at Prussia's initiative; most German states joined. Abolished tariff barriers; reduced currencies from over thirty to two. Railway network further stimulated mobility.
Friedrich List's view (1834): "The aim of the zollverein is to bind the Germans economically into a nation. It will strengthen the nation materially... It ought to awaken and raise national sentiment through a fusion of individual and provincial interests."
๐️ CONSERVATISM AFTER 1815
Congress of Vienna (1815): Representatives of Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria met to draw up settlement. Hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.
Objectives of Treaty of Vienna: Undo Napoleon's changes; restore monarchies; create new conservative order.
Key provisions:
- Bourbon dynasty restored in France
- France lost territories annexed under Napoleon
- Kingdom of Netherlands (including Belgium) set up in north to prevent French expansion
- Genoa added to Piedmont in south
- Prussia got new territories on western frontiers
- Austria got control of northern Italy
- German confederation of 39 states (Napoleon's creation) left untouched
- Russia got part of Poland; Prussia got portion of Saxony
Conservative regimes' features: Autocratic; did not tolerate criticism or dissent; imposed censorship laws to control newspapers, books, plays, songs reflecting liberty and freedom ideas.
๐ฅ REVOLUTIONARIES (1815 onwards)
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872):
- Born in Genoa; joined secret society Carbonari
- Exiled in 1831 at age 24 for attempting revolution in Liguria
- Founded Young Italy in Marseilles; later Young Europe in Berne
- Believed God intended nations to be natural units; Italy had to be forged into single unified republic
- Metternich called him "the most dangerous enemy of our social order"
๐ REVOLUTIONS OF 1830-1848
July Revolution (1830, France): Bourbon kings overthrown; liberal revolutionaries installed constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe.
Belgium breaks away: July Revolution sparked uprising in Brussels; Belgium separated from United Kingdom of Netherlands.
Greek war of independence (1821-1832):
- Greece part of Ottoman Empire since 15th century
- Revolutionary nationalism sparked struggle in 1821
- Support from Greeks in exile and West Europeans who admired ancient Greek culture
- Lord Byron organized funds, fought, died of fever in 1824
- Treaty of Constantinople (1832) recognized Greece as independent nation
๐ญ ROMANTICISM AND NATIONAL FEELING
What Romanticism did: Cultural movement criticizing glorification of reason and science; focused on emotions, intuition, mystical feelings. Effort to create shared collective heritage as basis of nation.
Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803): Claimed true German culture to be discovered among common people (das volk). Through folk songs, poetry, dances, the true spirit of nation (volkgeist) was popularized.
Poland's example: After partition by Russia, Prussia, Austria, national feelings kept alive through music and language. Karol Kurpinski used operas and music; turned folk dances (polonaise, mazurka) into nationalist symbols. Polish language forced out of schools; clergy used Polish in church gatherings—priests jailed or sent to Siberia for refusing to preach in Russian.
Grimm Brothers: Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm collected old folktales (1812). Believed folktales expressed pure German spirit. Their project part of wider effort to oppose French domination and create German national identity.
๐ HUNGER, HARDSHIP, POPULAR REVOLT
1830s economic hardship:
- Population increase across Europe
- More job seekers than employment
- Rural-urban migration; overcrowded slums
- Small producers faced competition from cheap machine-made English imports
- Peasants struggled under feudal dues where aristocracy still powerful
- Rise in food prices or bad harvest led to widespread pauperism
Silesian weavers' uprising (1845): Weavers revolted against contractors who supplied raw material but drastically reduced payments. On 4 June, crowd marched to contractor's mansion demanding higher wages. Treated with scorn, they forced into house, smashed windowpanes, furniture, porcelain; plundered storehouse, tore cloth. Contractor fled, returned with army—11 weavers shot.
1848 in France: Food shortages and unemployment brought Paris population on roads. Barricades erected; Louis Philippe fled. National Assembly proclaimed Republic, granted universal male suffrage (21+), guaranteed right to work, set up national workshops.
๐️ 1848: REVOLUTION OF THE LIBERALS
Frankfurt Parliament (18 May 1848): 831 elected representatives (middle-class professionals, businessmen, prosperous artisans) marched to Church of St Paul. Drafted constitution for German nation headed by monarchy subject to parliament. Offered crown to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia—he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose assembly. Troops called in; assembly disbanded.
Women's role: Women actively participated—formed political associations, founded newspapers, took part in meetings and demonstrations. BUT denied suffrage rights during election of Assembly. In Frankfurt Parliament, women admitted only as observers in visitors' gallery.
Carl Welcker's view (liberal politician): Argued nature created men and women for different functions—man stronger, protector, provider for public tasks; woman weaker, dependent, sphere is home. Equality between sexes would endanger family.
Louise Otto-Peters' response: "Liberty is indivisible! Free men must not tolerate to be surrounded by the unfree."
Aftermath: Monarchs realized cycles of revolution and repression could only end by granting concessions. After 1848, autocratic monarchies began introducing changes—serfdom and bonded labour abolished in Habsburg dominions and Russia; Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to Hungarians in 1867.
๐ฉ๐ช GERMAN UNIFICATION (1866-1871)
Shift after 1848: Nationalism moved away from democracy and revolution; conservatives mobilized nationalist sentiments for state power.
Otto von Bismarck: Chief Minister of Prussia; architect of unification with Prussian army and bureaucracy.
Three wars (seven years):
- War with Denmark (1864)
- War with Austria (1866)
- War with France (1870-71)
Proclamation (18 January 1871): In Hall of Mirrors, Palace of Versailles, Prussian King William I proclaimed German Emperor. Assembly included princes of German states, army representatives, Prussian ministers including Bismarck.
Features of new state: Demonstrated dominance of Prussian state power; emphasized modernizing currency, banking, legal and judicial systems. Prussian measures became model for rest of Germany.
๐ฎ๐น ITALIAN UNIFICATION (1859-1871)
Before unification: Italy divided into seven states—only Sardinia-Piedmont ruled by Italian princely house. North under Austrian Habsburgs; centre ruled by Pope; south under Bourbon kings of Spain. Italian language had many regional variations.
Key players:
| Leader | Role |
|---|---|
| Mazzini | Sought unitary Italian Republic; formed Young Italy; inspired but revolutions failed in 1831 and 1848 |
| Victor Emmanuel II | King of Sardinia-Piedmont; under whom unification took place |
| Count Cavour | Chief Minister; neither revolutionary nor democrat; engineered tactful diplomatic alliance with France; defeated Austrian forces in 1859 |
| Garibaldi | Led armed volunteers (Red Shirts); marched into South Italy in 1860; won support of local peasants; drove out Spanish rulers |
Timeline: 1859 – defeat of Austria with French help; 1860 – Garibaldi's Expedition of Thousand; 1861 – Victor Emmanuel II proclaimed king of united Italy; 1870 – Papal States finally joined (after France withdrew troops during Franco-Prussian War).
Note on peasant masses: Much of Italian population, with high illiteracy, remained unaware of liberal-nationalist ideology. Peasants who supported Garibaldi had never heard of Italia—believed 'Italia' was Victor Emmanuel's wife!
๐ฌ๐ง THE STRANGE CASE OF BRITAIN
Unlike rest of Europe: Nation-state formation was not result of sudden upheaval or revolution but long-drawn-out process.
Process:
- Before 18th century, primary identities were ethnic: English, Welsh, Scot, Irish—each with own cultural and political traditions
- English nation grew in wealth, importance, power; extended influence over other nations
- English parliament seized power from monarchy in 1688 after protracted conflict—instrument through which nation-state with England at centre was forged
- Act of Union (1707): Between England and Scotland formed "United Kingdom of Great Britain"—in effect, England imposed influence on Scotland; British parliament dominated by English members
- Suppression of Scottish culture: Distinctive culture and political institutions systematically suppressed; Catholic clans in Scottish Highlands forbidden to speak Gaelic or wear national dress; large numbers forcibly driven out
- Ireland: Deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. English helped Protestants establish dominance over Catholic country. Catholic revolts suppressed. After failed revolt led by Wolfe Tone and United Irishmen (1798), Ireland forcibly incorporated into United Kingdom in 1801
Forging new 'British nation': Through propagation of dominant English culture; symbols actively promoted—British flag (Union Jack), national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), English language. Older nations survived only as subordinate partners.
๐ผ️ VISUALISING THE NATION - ALLEGORIES
Why female figures? 18th-19th century artists personified nations as female figures to give abstract idea concrete form. Female figure became allegory of nation.
| Allegory | Country | Origin | Symbols & Meanings |
|---|---|---|---|
| Marianne | France | Popular Christian name underlining people's nation | Red cap (Liberty), tricolour, cockade; statues in public squares; images on coins and stamps |
| Germania | Germany | Romantic era | Crown of oak leaves (heroism), sword (readiness to fight), olive branch (willingness to make peace), black-red-gold tricolour (flag of liberal-nationalists 1848), rays of rising sun (beginning of new era), broken chains (being freed), breastplate with eagle (strength of German empire) |
Philip Veit's Germania (1848): Painted on cotton banner to hang from ceiling of Church of St Paul where Frankfurt parliament convened. Earlier version (1836) had Kaiser's crown where broken chain was later placed—significance: shift from monarchy to freedom symbol.
Julius Hubner's "The fallen Germania" (1850): Shows Germania as fallen—referring to failure of 1848 liberal revolution in Germany.
You may also want to explore Chapter 2 – Nationalism in India .
๐ฅ NATIONALISM AND IMPERIALISM - THE BALKANS
By last quarter 19th century: Nationalism became narrow creed, no longer idealistic liberal-democratic sentiment. Nationalist groups intolerant, ready for war. Major European powers manipulated nationalist aspirations of subject peoples for imperialist aims.
Balkans region: Geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro. Inhabitants broadly known as Slavs. Large part under Ottoman Empire.
Why explosive:
- Spread of romantic nationalism in Balkans
- Disintegration of Ottoman Empire (tried modernisation but failed)
- European subject nationalities broke away one by one, declared independence
- Balkan peoples based claims on nationality; used history to prove they had once been independent
- Balkan states fiercely jealous of each other; each hoped to gain territory at others' expense
- Big power rivalry: Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary—each keen to counter others' hold and extend own control
Outcome: Series of wars in region; finally First World War.
✅ REVISION CHECKLIST
- ☐ Sorrieu's print (1848): symbols, nations shown, utopian vision meaning
- ☐ Ernst Renan: "daily plebiscite", social capital, conditions for nation
- ☐ French Revolution measures for collective identity (6-7 points)
- ☐ Napoleon: reforms (positive) vs. reactions (negative), Napoleonic Code
- ☐ Europe before nation-states: Habsburg Empire example
- ☐ Aristocracy vs. new middle classes
- ☐ Liberalism: political, social, economic meanings; limitations (women, non-propertied)
- ☐ Zollverein: purpose, impact on nationalism
- ☐ Congress of Vienna (1815): provisions, conservative order
- ☐ Mazzini: life, societies, beliefs
- ☐ Greek war of independence (1821-1832)
- ☐ Romanticism: Herder's volksgeist, Poland's language resistance, Grimm Brothers
- ☐ 1848: causes (economic hardship), Silesian weavers, Frankfurt Parliament, women's role
- ☐ German unification: Bismarck, three wars, 1871 proclamation
- ☐ Italian unification: Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel II
- ☐ British nation-building: Act of Union (1707), suppression of Scottish/Irish culture
- ☐ Allegories: Marianne and Germania—symbols and meanings
- ☐ Balkans: causes of tension, big power rivalry, link to WWI
๐ EXAM TIP
For 5-mark questions: Always structure with introduction + 5 distinct points + conclusion. Use line breaks between points. Include specific years, names, and examples. For unification questions, mention all key leaders and their specific roles. For "role of culture" questions, give concrete examples (Herder, Poland, Kurpinski, Grimm Brothers).
For map questions: Mark location AND write one-line significance. e.g., "Frankfurt – where German National Assembly convened in 1848."
For source-based questions: Read source carefully; answers are often directly extractable. For Renan's source, know his rejection of language/race as basis of nation.
These notes cover every concept, date, personality, and movement from the NCERT chapter. Use them as your primary revision material.
